Taurine is an amino sulfonic acid present in high amounts in meat and fish. The most abundant dietary source of Taurine is human breast milk. Large amounts of Taurine are also found in the human brain, retina, heart and platelets. Taurine is normally synthesized in the human body in adequate amounts from cysteine and hypotaurine. Supplementation is necessary in non-breastfed infants because their ability to synthesize Taurine is undeveloped and cow's milk does not provide a sufficient amount. Taurine is often added to human infant formulas, enteral products and some parenteral nutritional solutions. Excess Taurine is excreted by the kidneys.
Taurine is involved in retinal photoreceptor activity, bile acid conjugation, white blood cell antioxidant activity, central nervous system neuromodulation, platelet aggregation, cardiac contractility, sperm motility, growth, insulin activity and osmoregulation. Taurine alters intracellular calcium movement, increasing left ventricular function without any adverse changes in arterial pressure in patients with congestive heart failure. Taurine might also improve heart failure because it seems to lower blood pressure and might normalize excessive sympathetic nervous system activity that often occurs in people with hypertension and congestive heart failure.
Preliminary studies also suggest Taurine might have natriuretic and diuretic activity. Taurine might also have a cholesterol-lowering effect. There is some evidence that Taurine might also have antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity. Platelets normally have high levels of Taurine and can become more prone to aggregation during Taurine depletion. Taurine is an amino acid-like compound and a component of bile acids, which are used to help absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins. Taurine also helps regulate the heart beat, maintain cell membrane stability and prevent brain cell over-activity. Taurine is used in the treatment of congestive heart failure (CHF), high blood pressure, hepatitis, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia) and cystic fibrosis. Other uses include seizure disorders (epilepsy), autism, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), retinal degeneration, diabetes and alcoholism. It is also used to improve mental performance and as an antioxidant.
Published Clinical Studiescl top
Effects of oral taurine supplementation on lipids and sympathetic nerve tone.1
Mizushima S, Nara Y, Sawamura M, Yamori Y.
Otsuka Department of International Preventive Nutritional Medicine, Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan.
OBJECTIVES: To assess effects of oral taurine supplementation on lipids and sympathetic nerve tone in healthy young men on experimental high fat and cholesterol diets. METHODS: Twenty-two healthy male volunteers, aged 18-29 years, were recruited for this randomized control trial after informed consent according to the Ethical Committee of Shimane Medical University. Volunteers were randomly allocated into 2 study groups and given experimental diet of identical regimen [total calorie 2500 kcal, cholesterol 1000 mg, polyunsaturated fat/saturated fat (P/S) ratio 0.52, fat 40% of total energy intake (%E), protein 14%E, carbohydrate 46%E] to raise serum cholesterol (CHO) level for 3 weeks. Alcohol intake, smoking and strenuous physical activities were prohibited. Taurine powder (6 g/day) was supplied to one group (T-group, N = 11) and placebo capsules to the other (C-group, N = 11), by a single-blind approach. Blood samples and 24 h urine specimens were obtained once every week. Two men in the C-group dropped out due to upper respiratory infection. There were no difference in age, body mass index (BMI) or blood pressure (BP) between the groups. Statistical analysis was performed by analysis of variance (ANOVA, repeated measurement) and Student's t-test. RESULTS: There were no changes in BMI and BP in either group during the period. Significant increases in total CHO (25.4 +/- 17.5 mg/dl, mean +/- SD), LDL-CHO (17.1 +/- 14.5) and LDL (43.9 +/- 37.6) were observed in C-group but were attenuated in the T-group. The T-group showed significant increases in VLDL-CHO, VLDL and TG. The T-group had significantly lower urinary norepinephrine excretion than the C-group in the last week. CONCLUSION: Oral taurine supplementation attenuated increases in T-CHO, LDL-CHO and LDL in healthy men on high fat cholesterol diets but induced significant increases in VLDL-CHO, VLDL and TG, which could be explained by a possible effect of taurine on lipoprotein lipase. Significantly lower urinary norepinephrine excretion observed by the taurine administration implies the suppression of the sympathetic nervous system.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8915402 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
2
Complementary vascular-protective actions of magnesium and taurine: a rationale for magnesium taurate.
McCarty MF.
Nutrition 21, San Diego, CA 92109, USA.
By a variety of mechanisms, magnesium functions both intracellularly and extracellularly to minimize the cytoplasmic free calcium level, [Ca2+]i. This may be the chief reason why correction of magnesium deficiency, or induction of hypermagnesemia by parenteral infusion, exerts antihypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-arrhythmic and antithrombotic effects. Although the amino acid taurine can increase systolic calcium transients in cardiac cells (and thus has positive inotropic activity), it has other actions which tend to reduce [Ca2+]i. Indeed, in animal or clinical studies, taurine lowers elevated blood pressure, retards cholesterol-induced atherogenesis, prevents arrhythmias and stabilizes platelets--effects parallel to those of magnesium. The complex magnesium taurate may thus have considerable potential as a vascular-protective nutritional supplement, and might also be administered parenterally, as an alternative to magnesium sulfate, in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction as well as of pre-eclampsia. The effects of magnesium taurate in diabetes deserve particular attention, since both magnesium and taurine may improve insulin sensitivity, and also may lessen risk for the micro- and macrovascular complications of diabetes.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8692051 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Magnesium taurate and fish oil for prevention of migraine.3
McCarty MF.
Nutrition 21, San Diego, CA 92109, USA.
Although the pathogenesis of migraine is still poorly understood, various clinical investigations, as well as consideration of the characteristic activities of the wide range of drugs known to reduce migraine incidence, suggest that such phenomena as neuronal hyperexcitation, cortical spreading depression, vasospasm, platelet activation and sympathetic hyperactivity often play a part in this syndrome. Increased tissue levels of taurine, as well as increased extracellular magnesium, could be expected to dampen neuronal hyperexcitation, counteract vasospasm, increase tolerance to focal hypoxia and stabilize platelets; taurine may also lessen sympathetic outflow. Thus it is reasonable to speculate that supplemental magnesium taurate will have preventive value in the treatment of migraine. Fish oil, owing to its platelet-stabilizing and antivasospastic actions, may also be useful in this regard, as suggested by a few clinical reports. Although many drugs have value for migraine prophylaxis, the two nutritional measures suggested here may have particular merit owing to the versatility of their actions, their safety and lack of side-effects and their long-term favorable impact on vascular health.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8961243 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
4
The effect of taurine on the cholesterol metabolism in rats fed diets supplemented with cholestyramine or high amounts of bile acid.
Nishimura N, Umeda C, Oda H, Yokogoshi H.
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan. nishimura@nayoro.ac.jp
The effects of taurine on serum cholesterol levels and hepatic cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase activity (CYP7A1) were studied in rats fed cholestyramine or high amounts of sodium cholate in order to alter the intestinal pool of bile acids. Rats were fed a diet supplemented with 1% cholesterol and 0.25% sodium cholate (high cholesterol, control; C), and C supplemented with 4% cholestyramine (CH) or 0.75% sodium cholate (BA) for 14 d. Taurine groups were fed the diet supplemented with 3% taurine (CT, CHT and BAT). Compared to rats fed C and BA diets, serum cholesterol levels were significantly reduced in rats fed CT and BAT diets, but a significant reduction of serum cholesterol by taurine feeding was not observed in the CHT group as compared to the CH group. An increase in hepatic CYP7A1 activity due to taurine intake was observed in the CT and BAT groups. However, the simultaneous administration of cholestyramine and taurine (CHT group) did not increase hepatic CYP7A1 activity compared the intake of cholestyramine only (CH group). A significant increase in fecal bile acid excretion due to taurine intake was found only in rats fed the CT diet. In conclusion, it is suggested that taurine facilitates hepatic CYP7A1 activity regardless of the enlarged intestinal pool of bile acids due to increased intake of exogenous bile acid, and then reduces the serum cholesterol concentration.
PMID: 12882392 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
5
Dietary taurine enhances cholesterol degradation and reduces serum and liver cholesterol concentrations in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet.
Yokogoshi H, Oda H.
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan. yokogosi@u-shizuoka-a-ken.ac.jp
The effect of taurine on hypercholesterolemia induced by feeding a high-cholesterol (HC) diet (10 g/kg) to rats was examined. When taurine was supplemented to HC for 2 wk, serum total cholesterol significantly decreased and serum HDL-cholesterol increased compared with the HC diet group. In the hypercholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet, the excretion of fecal bile acids and hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) activity and its mRNA level increased significantly, and the supplementation of taurine further enhanced these indexes, indicating an increase in cholesterol degradation. Agarose gel electrophoresis revealed that, in hypercholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet, the serum level of the heavier VLDL increased significantly, but taurine repressed this increase and normalized this pattern. Significant correlations were observed between the time-dependent increase of CYP7A1 gene expression and the decrease of blood cholesterol concentration in rats fed the HC diet supplemented with taurine. These results suggest that the hypocholesterolemic effects of taurine observed in the hypocholesterolemic rats fed the HC diet were mainly due to the enhancement of cholesterol degradation and the excretion of bile acid.
PMID: 12436212 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Taurine: evidence of physiological function in the retina.6
Militante JD, Lombardini JB.
Department of Pharmacology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock 79430, USA.
Taurine is a free amino acid found in high millimolar concentrations in mammalian tissue and is particularly abundant in the retina. Mammals synthesize taurine endogenously with varying abilities, with some species more dependent on dietary sources of taurine than others. Human children appear to be more dependent on dietary taurine than adults. Specifically, it has been established that visual dysfunction in both human and animal subjects results from taurine deficiency. Moreover, the deficiency is reversed with simple nutritional supplementation with taurine. The data suggest that taurine is an important neurochemical factor in the visual system. However, the exact function or functions of taurine in the retina are still unresolved despite continuing scientific study. Nevertheless, the importance of taurine in the retina is implied in the following experimental findings: (1) Taurine exhibits significant effects on biochemical systems in vitro. (2) The distribution of taurine is tightly regulated in the different retinal cell types through the development of the retina. (3) Taurine depletion results in significant retinal lesions. (4) Taurine release and uptake has been found to employ distinct regulatory mechanisms in the retina.
Publication Types:
PMID: 12000086 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Taurine as a micronutrient in development and regeneration of the central nervous system.7
Lima L, Obregon F, Cubillos S, Fazzino F, Jaimes I.
Laboratorio de Neuroquimica, Centro de Biofisica y Bioquimica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas, Venezuela. llima@cbb.ivic.ve
Taurine is an amino acid known to possess trophic properties in the central nervous system. The relevance of its presence in maternal milk is related to its role as an essential nutrient. Taurine deficiency around birth produces anatomical and functional modifications in the brain and in the retina. In addition, taurine favors neuron proliferation and survival, as well as neurite extension. The mechanisms by which taurine exerts its trophic role in the regenerating retina are related to increases in calcium fluxes, to modifications of protein phosphorylation, and to influence of the target organ. Moreover, taurine-zinc interaction might be crucial in the development of structures such as the hippocampal formation. Thus, taurine can be considered as one of the determinant nutritional molecules during development and regeneration of the central nervous system.
Publication Types:
PMID: 11843263 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Interaction between the actions of taurine and angiotensin II.8
Schaffer SW, Lombardini JB, Azuma J.
Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile 36688, USA.
The amino acid, taurine, is an important nutrient found in very high concentration in excitable tissue. Cellular depletion of taurine has been linked to developmental defects, retinal damage, immunodeficiency, impaired cellular growth and the development of a cardiomyopathy. These findings have encouraged the use of taurine in infant formula, nutritional supplements and energy promoting drinks. Nonetheless, the use of taurine as a drug to treat specific diseases has been limited. One disease that responds favorably to taurine therapy is congestive heart failure. In this review, we discuss three mechanisms that might underlie the beneficial effect of taurine in heart failure. First, taurine promotes natriuresis and diuresis, presumably through its osmoregulatory activity in the kidney, its modulation of atrial natriuretic factor secretion and its putative regulation of vasopressin release. However, it remains to be determined whether taurine treatment promotes salt and water excretion in humans with heart failure. Second, taurine mediates a modest positive inotropic effect by regulating [Na+]i and Na+/Ca2+ exchanger flux. Although this effect of taurine has not been examined in human tissue, it is significant that it bypasses the major calcium transport defects found in the failing human heart. Third, taurine attenuates the actions of angiotensin II on Ca2+ transport, protein synthesis and angiotensin II signaling. Through this mechanism taurine would be expected to minimize many of the adverse actions of angiotensin II, including the induction of cardiac hypertrophy, volume overload and myocardial remodeling. Since the ACE inhibitors are the mainstay in the treatment of congestive heart failure, this action of taurine is probably very important.
Publication Types:
PMID: 10949914 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Insulin resistance: lifestyle and nutritional interventions.9
Kelly GS.
Insulin resistance appears to be a common feature and a possible contributing factor to several frequent health problems, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, polycystic ovary disease, dyslipidemia, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, sleep apnea, certain hormone-sensitive cancers, and obesity. Modifiable factors thought to contribute to insulin resistance include diet, exercise, smoking, and stress. Lifestyle intervention to address these factors appears to be a critical component of any therapeutic approach. The role of nutritional and botanical substances in the management of insulin resistance requires further elaboration; however, available information suggests some substances are capable of positively influencing insulin resistance. Minerals such as magnesium, calcium, potassium, zinc, chromium, and vanadium appear to have associations with insulin resistance or its management. Amino acids, including L-carnitine, taurine, and L-arginine, might also play a role in the reversal of insulin resistance. Other nutrients, including glutathione, coenzyme Q10, and lipoic acid, also appear to have therapeutic potential. Research on herbal medicines for the treatment of insulin resistance is limited; however, silymarin produced positive results in diabetic patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, and Inula racemosa potentiated insulin sensitivity in an animal model.
Publication Types:
PMID: 10767668 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Effects of oral taurine supplementation on lipids and sympathetic nerve tone.10
Mizushima S, Nara Y, Sawamura M, Yamori Y.
Otsuka Department of International Preventive Nutritional Medicine, Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan.
OBJECTIVES: To assess effects of oral taurine supplementation on lipids and sympathetic nerve tone in healthy young men on experimental high fat and cholesterol diets. METHODS: Twenty-two healthy male volunteers, aged 18-29 years, were recruited for this randomized control trial after informed consent according to the Ethical Committee of Shimane Medical University. Volunteers were randomly allocated into 2 study groups and given experimental diet of identical regimen [total calorie 2500 kcal, cholesterol 1000 mg, polyunsaturated fat/saturated fat (P/S) ratio 0.52, fat 40% of total energy intake (%E), protein 14%E, carbohydrate 46%E] to raise serum cholesterol (CHO) level for 3 weeks. Alcohol intake, smoking and strenuous physical activities were prohibited. Taurine powder (6 g/day) was supplied to one group (T-group, N = 11) and placebo capsules to the other (C-group, N = 11), by a single-blind approach. Blood samples and 24 h urine specimens were obtained once every week. Two men in the C-group dropped out due to upper respiratory infection. There were no difference in age, body mass index (BMI) or blood pressure (BP) between the groups. Statistical analysis was performed by analysis of variance (ANOVA, repeated measurement) and Student's t-test. RESULTS: There were no changes in BMI and BP in either group during the period. Significant increases in total CHO (25.4 +/- 17.5 mg/dl, mean +/- SD), LDL-CHO (17.1 +/- 14.5) and LDL (43.9 +/- 37.6) were observed in C-group but were attenuated in the T-group. The T-group showed significant increases in VLDL-CHO, VLDL and TG. The T-group had significantly lower urinary norepinephrine excretion than the C-group in the last week. CONCLUSION: Oral taurine supplementation attenuated increases in T-CHO, LDL-CHO and LDL in healthy men on high fat cholesterol diets but induced significant increases in VLDL-CHO, VLDL and TG, which could be explained by a possible effect of taurine on lipoprotein lipase. Significantly lower urinary norepinephrine excretion observed by the taurine administration implies the suppression of the sympathetic nervous system.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8915402 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
11
Complementary vascular-protective actions of magnesium and taurine: a rationale for magnesium taurate.
McCarty MF.
Nutrition 21, San Diego, CA 92109, USA.
By a variety of mechanisms, magnesium functions both intracellularly and extracellularly to minimize the cytoplasmic free calcium level, [Ca2+]i. This may be the chief reason why correction of magnesium deficiency, or induction of hypermagnesemia by parenteral infusion, exerts antihypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-arrhythmic and antithrombotic effects. Although the amino acid taurine can increase systolic calcium transients in cardiac cells (and thus has positive inotropic activity), it has other actions which tend to reduce [Ca2+]i. Indeed, in animal or clinical studies, taurine lowers elevated blood pressure, retards cholesterol-induced atherogenesis, prevents arrhythmias and stabilizes platelets--effects parallel to those of magnesium. The complex magnesium taurate may thus have considerable potential as a vascular-protective nutritional supplement, and might also be administered parenterally, as an alternative to magnesium sulfate, in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction as well as of pre-eclampsia. The effects of magnesium taurate in diabetes deserve particular attention, since both magnesium and taurine may improve insulin sensitivity, and also may lessen risk for the micro- and macrovascular complications of diabetes.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8692051 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Magnesium taurate and fish oil for prevention of migraine.12
McCarty MF.
Nutrition 21, San Diego, CA 92109, USA.
Although the pathogenesis of migraine is still poorly understood, various clinical investigations, as well as consideration of the characteristic activities of the wide range of drugs known to reduce migraine incidence, suggest that such phenomena as neuronal hyperexcitation, cortical spreading depression, vasospasm, platelet activation and sympathetic hyperactivity often play a part in this syndrome. Increased tissue levels of taurine, as well as increased extracellular magnesium, could be expected to dampen neuronal hyperexcitation, counteract vasospasm, increase tolerance to focal hypoxia and stabilize platelets; taurine may also lessen sympathetic outflow. Thus it is reasonable to speculate that supplemental magnesium taurate will have preventive value in the treatment of migraine. Fish oil, owing to its platelet-stabilizing and antivasospastic actions, may also be useful in this regard, as suggested by a few clinical reports. Although many drugs have value for migraine prophylaxis, the two nutritional measures suggested here may have particular merit owing to the versatility of their actions, their safety and lack of side-effects and their long-term favorable impact on vascular health.
Publication Types:
PMID: 8961243 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Taurine as a micronutrient in development and regeneration of the central nervous system.13
Lima L, Obregon F, Cubillos S, Fazzino F, Jaimes I.
Laboratorio de Neuroquimica, Centro de Biofisica y Bioquimica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas, Venezuela. llima@cbb.ivic.ve
Taurine is an amino acid known to possess trophic properties in the central nervous system. The relevance of its presence in maternal milk is related to its role as an essential nutrient. Taurine deficiency around birth produces anatomical and functional modifications in the brain and in the retina. In addition, taurine favors neuron proliferation and survival, as well as neurite extension. The mechanisms by which taurine exerts its trophic role in the regenerating retina are related to increases in calcium fluxes, to modifications of protein phosphorylation, and to influence of the target organ. Moreover, taurine-zinc interaction might be crucial in the development of structures such as the hippocampal formation. Thus, taurine can be considered as one of the determinant nutritional molecules during development and regeneration of the central nervous system.
Publication Types:
PMID: 11843263 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Taurine: a conditionally essential amino acid in humans? An overview in health and disease.14
Lourenco R, Camilo ME.
Servicos Farmaceuticos do Hospital de Santa Maria, Lisbon, Portugal. r.lourenco@fm.ul.pt
Taurine, a sulphur containing amino acid, is the most abundant intracellular amino acid in humans, and is implicated in numerous biological and physiological functions. This comprehensive overview explores areas, from its characterisation to its potential clinical benefit as a conditionally essential amino acid and a pharmaconutrient. In healthy individuals the diet is the usual source of taurine; although in the presence of vitamin B6 it is also synthesised from methionine and cysteine. Taurine has a unique chemical structure that implies important physiological functions: bile acid conjugation and cholestasis prevention, antiarrhythmic/inotropic/chronotropic effects, central nervous system neuromodulation, retinal development and function, endocrine/metabolic effects and antioxidant/antiinflammatory properties. Taurine is an essential amino acid for preterm neonates and is assured by breast milk. Specific groups of individuals are at risk for taurine deficiency and may benefit from supplementation, e.g. patients requiring long-term parenteral nutrition (including premature and newborn infants); those with chronic hepatic, heart or renal failure. Further studies are required to determine the benefits of replenishing taurine pools as well as the need to include taurine routinely in parenteral nutrition regimens.
Publication Types:
PMID: 12514918 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Prevention of epileptic seizures by taurine.15
El Idrissi A, Messing J, Scalia J, Trenkner E.
New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities and The Center for Developmental Neuroscience, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA.
Parenteral injection of kainic acid (KA), a glutamate receptor agonist, causes severe and stereotyped behavioral convulsions in mice and is used as a rodent model for human temporal lobe epilepsy. The goal of this study is to examine the potential anti-convulsive effects of the neuro-active amino acid taurine, in the mouse model of KA-induced limbic seizures. We found that taurine (43 mg/Kg, s.c.) had a significant antiepileptic effect when injected 10 min prior to KA. Acute injection of taurine increased the onset latency and reduced the occurrence of tonic seizures. Taurine also reduced the duration of tonic-clonic convulsions and mortality rate following KA-induced seizures. Furthermore, taurine significantly reduced neuronal cell death in the CA3 region of the hippocampus, the most susceptible region to KA in the limbic system. On the other hand, supplementation of taurine in drinking water (0.05%) for 4 continuous weeks failed to decrease the number or latency of partial or tonic-clonic seizures. To the contrary, we found that taurine-fed mice showed increased susceptibility to KA-induced seizures, as demonstrated by a decreased latency for clonic seizures, an increased incidence and duration of tonic-clonic seizures, increased neuronal death in the CA3 region of the hippocampus and a higher post-seizure mortality of the animals. We suggest that the reduced susceptibility to KA-induced seizures in taurine-injected mice is due to an increase in GABA receptor function in the brain which increases the inhibitory drive within the limbic system. This is supported by our in vitro data obtained in primary neuronal cultures showing that taurine acts as a low affinity agonist for GABA(A) receptors, protects neurons against kainate excitotoxic insults and modulates calcium homeostasis. Therefore, taurine is potentially capable of treating seizure-associated brain damage.
PMID: 12908638 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Referencesre